Amiga Plus 1995 #2/Amiga Plus CD - 1995 - No. 2.iso/internet/faq/englisch/soc.culture.jewish-nation

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Archive-name: judaism/FAQ/07-Jews-As-Nation
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               Frequently Asked Questions on Soc.Culture.Jewish
                           Part 7: Jews as a Nation
         [Last Change: $Date: 1995/03/05 19:07:05 $ $Revision: 1.16 $]
                    [Last Post: Fri Feb  3 11:07:06 1995]


This posting is an attempt to answer questions that are continually asked on
soc.culture.jewish.  It was written by cooperating laypeople from the various
Judaic movements.  You SHOULD NOT make any assumption as to accuracy and/or
authoritativeness of the answers provided herein.  In all cases, it is always
best to consult a competent authority -- your local rabbi is a good place to
start.

The deceased sages described within are of blessed memory, (assume a Z"L or
ZT"L after their names) and the sages alive today should live to see long and
good days (assume SHLITA).  May Hashem grant complete recovery to the ill.
Individual honorifics are omitted.

The FAQ was produced by a committee and is a cooperative work.  The
contributors never standardized on a {Hebrew,Aramaic,Yiddish,Ladino}-->English
transliteration scheme.  As a result, the same original word might appear with
a variety of spellings.  This is complicated by the fact that there are
regional variations in the pronunciation of Hebrew.  In some places, the
common spelling variations are mentioned; in others --- not.  We hope that
this is not too confusing.

This list should be used in conjunction with the Soc.Culture.Jewish reading
lists that are posted separately.  Similar questions can be found in the books
referenced in those lists.

Reproduction of this posting for commercial use is subject to restriction. See
Part 1 for more details.

------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Organization

This portion of the FAQ contains answers to the following questions:

Section 13. Jews as a Nation
  13.1. What are the different racial and cultural groups of Jews?
  13.2. What are the differences between Sephardim and Ashkenazim?
  13.3. Where did the Beita Yisrael (Falashas) come from?
  13.4. Who were the Khazars?  Are Ashkenazi Jews descended from the
        Khazars?
  13.5. Who are Crypto-Jews (also known as "marranos")?
  13.6. Sephardi/Ashkenazi vs. O/C/R?

All portions of the FAQ are organized as digests, and should be
undigestifyable by software such as Gnus or rn. Please report any
difficulties.

------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Archival and Credits

Anonymous FTP:

  All portions of the FAQ and of the reading lists are archived on
  shamash.nysernet.org [192.77.173.13] and on rtfm.mit.edu, and are available
  for anonymous FTP. The locations of parts of the FAQ on shamash.nysernet.org
  are as follows:

  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/01-FAQ-intro
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/02-Who-We-Are
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/03-Torah-Halacha
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/04-Observance
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/05-Worship
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/06-Jewish-Thought
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/07-Jews-As-Nation
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/08-Israel
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/09-Antisemitism
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/10-Miscellaneous
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ/mail-order

  The locations of the parts of the reading lists on shamash.nysernet.org are
  as follows:

  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/general
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/traditional
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/chasidism
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/reform
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/conservative
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/reconstructionist
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/humanistic
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/zionism
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/antisemitism
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/intermarriage
  ftp://shamash.nysernet.org/israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists/periodicals

  If you are accessing the archives on rtfm.mit.edu, the pathname is
  pub/usenet/news.answers/judaism, instead of israel/lists/scj-faq.

Mail:
  The files may also be obtained via Email by sending a message to
  [e-mail] with the following line in the body of the message:

        send usenet/news.answers/judaism/(portionname)

  Where (portionname) is replaced by the appropriate subdirectory and
  filenames; for example, to get the first part of the reading list, one would
  say:

        send usenet/news.answers/judaism/reading-lists/general

WWW/Mosaic:
  The FAQ and reading lists are available by following the following pointer:

  http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/hypertext/faq/bngusenet/soc/culture/jewish/top.htm

Comments and corrections are welcome.  Note that the goal is to present
a balanced view of Judaism; where a response is applicable to a particular
movement only, this will be noted.  Unless otherwise noted or implied by the
text, all responses reflect the traditional viewpoint.

------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 13.1. What are the different racial and cultural groups of Jews?

The Jewish religion is practiced by people of diverse racial and ethnic
backgrounds, as a result of the continual process of conversion to
Judaism. Thus, Jews today are a mixture of descendants of converts as well as
direct descendants of ancient Israelite Jews.

Among North American Jews, individuals of Eastern European Ashkenazi heritage
are predominant, although before the late 1800's, individuals of Sephardi
origin (i.e.  Jews who settled around the Mediterranean basin at the time of
the diaspora) were more common.

Other groups of Jews include the Arab and Yemeni Jews.  In fact, there was a
Jewish kingdom in Yemen in the early Middle Ages under the rule of Dhu
Nuwas. There are also Jews of Persian origin. The larger groups of
non-Caucasian Jews include the Jews from Ethiopia.

Other Jewish communities include the Kaifeng Jews of China (now mostly
assimilated) and rumors of Jews in Mongolia.  Until 1960, there was a
community of cave-dwelling Jews in southern Libya.  A community in Burma
claimed to be Jews, and rumors and legends abound about African, Native
American, and other tribes claiming Jewish ancestry. There are also Jewish
communities in India.

A 20th-century convert community, the Abayudaya Jews, exists in Uganda,
Africa.

------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 13.2. What are the differences between Sephardim and Ashkenazim?

They came from different cultures, and so particular customs developed
differently, such as details of the prayer service and permitted foods on
Pesach.  The _Shulchan Aruch_ by R' Joseph Karo is the definitive Sephardic
work on halacha, and R' Moshe Isserles later added glosses to describe
Ashkenazi practice.  Other works describe the customs and practices of
particular communities.

Many of the customs (minhag) are derived from the communities in which these
groups arose. The customs of Ashkenazi Jews often resemble those of the Slavs
and Germans, because the Ashkenazi Jews were concentrated in that
region. Additional information may be found in Paul Wexler's book "The
Ashkenazic Jews" by Slavica Publishers.

------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 13.3. Where did the Beita Yisrael (Falashas) come from?

First off, know that "Falasha" (Amharic for "stranger") is considered very
derogatory.  Just say "Ethiopian Jew" if you can't remember "Beita Yisrael."
Older reference books will probably list them under "Falasha," i.e. the 1972
article in the Encyclopaedia Judaica.

Their own legends date them back to Shlomo ha-melech [King Solomon], and
ascribe their origin to the tribe of Dan.  See the book _The Lost Jews_ by
Rappoport.

Researchers also think some of the defeated Yemenite Jews from the Abu Duwas
Jewish Kingdom came to Ethiopia, and that some Elephantine Jews migrated south
from Egypt.  Another Ethiopian legend has one of Moses' sons migrating South
and establishing a Hebrew community before King Solomon.

------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 13.4. Who were the Khazars?  Are Ashkenazi Jews descended from the
        Khazars?

The Khazars were a Turkic tribe that migrated to the Russian steppes region,
and established a powerful military kingdom, that existed from the mid-7th to
early-11th century.  Surrounded by the Islamic Eastern Caliphate of Persia and
the Christian Byzantine Empire, they chose Judaism as their state religion to
avoid being religiously (and hence politically) dominated by either Empire, so
that they could avoid being labelled as heathens without identifying with
either of their powerful neighbors.

The Khazars were a potent military force in the area until about the middle
of the eleventh century, their last power base being the Crimean peninsula.
The Khazars had a two king system, consisting of a military king (Khaqan)
and a civilian king (bek).  They defeated the Eastern Caliphate in several
key battles, thus ensuring the halt of Islam at what are essentially its
current boundaries, much the same as what the Carolingian rulers did to the
Western Caliphate at the Pyrenees.  (Ironically, these Jewish converts made
Eastern Europe safe for Christianity.)  The emerging Rus (Russians) were
also defeated, and tribute was exacted to allow Viking and Rus ships to
pass through Khazar dominated waterways to raid for treasure in the Persian
cities on the Caspian Sea coast. The Empress Theodora of the Byzantine
Empire was a Khazar princess given in marriage as a political alliance.

The Khazar ruling classes were were converted to Judaism by Persian Jewish
rabbis, who stayed with them and taught them (and probably provided Kohanim
and Levites as well).  Many of the Khazar soldiers were known to be either
Christians or Muslims, so the total conversion of the Khazars is unlikely.

Evidence of the Khazars comes from Arab travelogues of the period and from
several archeological excavations in Russia and the Ukraine just after WWI.
(including the Sarkel site, which was later flooded for a dam, and is not
available for further research.) Other primary sources are:

   1. The Kievan Letter, written by the Khazar Jews of Kiev in early
      10th century, found in the Cairo Genizah
   2. The Khazar Correspondence between Khaqan Joseph and Hasdai ibn
      ibn Shaprut of Spain, now known to be authentic.
   3. The Schechter Letter, found in the Cairo Genizah, a
      semi-historical account of the conversion of Khazars to Judaism
      and of the migration of Jews to Khazaria

Secondary sources are the Al-Kuzari, a religious work using the story of the
Khazars as justification for Judaism in the face of intense missionary
pressure especially in Spain, and Arthur Koestler's "The Thirteenth Tribe",
which theorizes more than the facts we have allow. Records of German Jews
fleeing the earliest Crusades indicate that small Khazar communities were
already living in Poland in the 12th century, and records exist of a boatload
of Khazars arriving in pre-Expulsion Spain. Other secondary sources are:

  1. (book) "Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century" by Omeljan
     Pritsak and Norman Golb, Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1982.
  2. (book) "The History of the Jewish Khazars" by D. M. Dunlop, New York, NY:
     Schocken Books, 1967.
  3. (book) "Khazar Studies: An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the
     Origins of the Khazars" by Peter Golden, Budapest, Hungary: Akademiai
     Kiado, 1980.

The destruction of Khazaria ended what was probably the best chance of
re-establishment of Jewish sovereignty of the Holy Land prior to 1948,
since a confederation of Khazaria and Sephardic Jews could have negotiated
for, or purchased back, the Holy Land from its then Byzantine rulers.

Are Ashkenazi Jews descended from the Khazars?  The answer is probably
mixed.  As the Khazar kingdom broke up, some Khazars must have fled into
Eastern Europe, but from Sephardic travelogues we know that "Russian Jews"
were known to the Sephardi community as early as the 11th century, distinct
from Khazars.  We also know that the Ukraine, the most likely place for the
Khazars to have gone, experienced its largest growth in population not when
the Khazar kingdom was breaking up, but rather with its conquest by Poland
nearly 200 years later.  At that time, Polish Jews flooded into the
country, nearly tripling the Jewish population in 40 years.

There is no remnant of Khazar custom or Khazar names in Ashkenazi Jews. The
name Kogan is sometimes used to point to Khaqan, but the more likely
derivation has always been Ukrainian for Kohan (where the h-g substitution is
common as in Gitler).  Only a few Turkic words remain in Yiddish, although
some Jews do have features that might be considered almost Mongolian or
Oriental.  There are, however, secondary influences of Khazars in the Magyar
culture, since the Magyars were allies of the Khazars; early Hungarian
monarchies were divided up into two kingships like their former neighbors.

Eastern European Jews predominantly have ancestors who came from Germany,
Bohemia, and other areas of Central Europe.  The most common view holds that
the migrations of western Jews to Eastern Europe occurred around the time of
the Crusades and the Black Plague massacres.  However, there is no question
that intermarriages occurred between Christians and Jews, often as the result
of rape by Germanic Roman legionnaires or by Cossacks during pogroms.  It is
also very likely that some of the Jewish Khazars assimilated with western
Jews, as settlements of Khazars after Khazaria's destruction were documented
in Kiev, Chernigov region, and other parts of Ukraine.  In addition, family
traditions indicate the likely persistence of Khazar Jewish settlements in
northern Romania and Hungary.  Some Khazars are said to have become the
ancestors of the Kumyks of the north Caucasus.  Khazar settlements existed in
Turkey and Derbent.

Other groups such as the Sorbs and Avars may also have been ancestors of
Ashkenazim, based on recent archaeological evidence and studies of linguistics
and medieval culture.

If you are interested in this subject, a mailing list has been set up to
research on the origins and history of Eastern European Jews. To subscribe,
send an email message containing the words "subscribe eejh" to
[e-mail]. For further information, contact Kevin Brook
<[e-mail]>.

------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 13.5. Who are Crypto-Jews (also known as "marranos")?

At the time of the Spanish Inquisition and the expulsion from Spain in 1492,
Jews were offered conversion or expulsion.  Many chose to leave Spain, but
others stayed behind.

"Marranos" actually started appearing with the first riots in the Juderias of
Spain.  Many were forced to convert to save their lives.  These were naturally
not faithful Catholics.  The laws in 14th and 15th century Spain became
increasingly oppressive towards practicing Jews, while providing an easy
escape by conversion.  Large numbers of middle class Jews outwardly took on
Christianity to avoid the laws, while secretly practicing Judaism.

Most of the remaining Marranic practice in Spain and Portugal today is from
those religious Jews who escaped from Spain to Portugal in 1492, only to be
trapped there later when the expulsion was instituted there as well.  The most
active Marranism in the Iberian peninsula is in the mountainous border areas
between Spain and Portugal, in towns such as Belmonte'.  Jewish outreach in
these areas is achieving success in bringing them forward and restoring full
Judaic practice, but many still fear burning or other persecution if they go
public.

Some faithful Catholic converts were won by the efforts of famous apostates
like Pablo de Santa Maria who went around disputing the rabbis and ordinary
Jews, winning some converts.  In the most famous disputation, with
Nachmanides, he was soundly defeated, but the Franciscans published false
reports of the disputation to win more converts. Nachmanides, who had been
protected from heresy laws during the disputations, was forced to publish his
refutations in public.  He was forced into exile rather than be burned as a
heretic.  In any case, the faithfulness of these converts is doubtful, since
the Order of Expulsion was primarily due to the recidivism of Conversos once
they had to live next door to practicing Jews again.  It was felt that
expelling all open Jews was the only way to keep the Conversos Christian.

Among those who stayed behind were Jews who pretended to convert to Roman
Catholicism, but who secretly maintained a practice of Judaism.  The term
"Marrano" was at one time used to describe them, as the term refers to the
swine which they'd publicly eat to demonstrate their outward conversion.  It
isn't clear if the "Old Christians" or the practicing Jews called them
"marrano".

In Majorca the community was converted in the 1430's and are called Chuetas,
from "pork lard" since they regularly keep pork lard boiling in cauldrons on
their porches.  They themselves still call themselves Israelitas in private,
and ask forgiveness from el Grande Dio for worshipping in front of statues of
a man.  They typically sacrified (in a figurative, not literal, sense) their
first born sons to the Catholic priesthood as a means of getting protection
from Church persecution, so, ironically, many of the priests across the
Baleiric Islands are from Marrano families.

Crypto-Jew is the correct term, as it also refers to Jews forced to adopt
other religions and political philosophies while maintaining Jewish practices.
Crypto-Judaism pre-dates the Inquisition, as Jews were forced by the
Al-Mohavid invasions of Spain to become Muslims, creating Crypto-Jews who
gradually fled to Christian districts for protection from the Muslims (see
Roth's History of the Jews).  In modern times outwardly Muslim Crypto-Jews are
known to be in Meshed, Iran, and in Turkey.

A number of Crypto-Jewish communities survive today, especially in former
Spanish-influenced regions, such as the southwestern U.S.A.  They still
maintain extensive secrecy after centuries.  Other communities were lost to
assimilation, but maintained residual Jewish practices such as lighting
candles Friday night.  Based on information in Cohen's _The Marranos_ and
Prinz's _The Secret Jews_, the following are some examples of these
communities:

 o The Antiquen~as of Colombia.
 o Much of Northern Mexico's middle and upper classes (Nuevo Leon is the "New
   Lion of Judah").
 o The Naucalpan and Vallejo districts of Mexico City.
 o The Chuetas of Majorca.

Famous Hispanics who have acknowledged Marrano ancestry include Rita Moreno
and Fidel Castro.

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Subject: 13.6. Sephardi/Ashkenazi vs. O/C/R?

QUESTION: How does the Sephardi/Ashkenazi differences differ from the O/C/R
differences.

ANSWER: Traditional Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jews agree that the oral and
written Torah are from G-d, and that the sages may rule on halachic matters.
The differences in practice are mostly in culture and customs.  Traditional
and liberal Jews disagree on the Divine origin of the oral and written Torah,
and on the ability of present-day sages and secular scholars to overrule
earlier halachic decisors.

Also, Sephardic Jews tend not to separate along "denominational" lines, but
rather "observant" and "non-observant."

------------------------------------------------------------
--
Please mail additions or corrections to me at [e-mail].


End of SCJ FAQ Part 7 (Jewish as a Nation) Digest
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